From Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia

While people have inhabited Mongolia since the Stone Age, Mongolia only became politically important after iron weapons entered the area in the 3rd century B.C. In general, Mongolia at this point had a similiar history to the rest of the nomadic steppe that lies between Siberia and Northern Russia to the North and China, the Middle East, and Central Asia to the South. These steppes usually were inhabited by bands of nomads, sometimes united in confederations of varying sizes. These nomads usually herded animals, traded, raided more agricultural peoples and each other. However, every now and then, there would form giant nomadic confederations that threatened China, and sometimes the Middle East, Europe and beyond, but these confederations, while vast, and often destructive, rarely lasted, though they did redistribute peoples and disrupt the politics of the regions they attacked. The people in the Mongolia region usually focused their attention on nearby, wealthy China, and their occassional confederations greatly influence Chinese history. China's response is a major theme in Mongolian history. The most notable alliance of the Mongols however reached far beyond China, under the leadership of Genghis Khan, his empire and the states that emerged from it would play a major role in the history of the 13th and 14th centuries. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia.

In Mongolia itself, the legacy of Genghis Khan was a superior law code, a written language, and a historical pride. In addition, the foreign contact created by the Mongolian empire allowed for the spred of Mongolian genes, and the intoduction of Buddhism into Mongolia. When the Mongolian empire broke up, Mongolia became part of the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 CE), which included a unified China. The Ming Dynasty replaced it in 1368 and invaded Mongolia, leading to a Mongolian defeat, but not a Chinese conquest.

By the early 15th century, Mongolia was split between the Oirad in the Altai region and the eastern group that later came to be known as the Khalkha in the area north of the Gobi. In the mid-15th century, the Oirad dominated and briefly united Mongolia and threatened China, at one point killing the Ming emperor. Eventually in the 16th century, under Dayan Khan, it ruled over a vast section of North-Central Asia from the Ural Mountains to Lake Baykal, conqering even the Khalkas. But after his death, Mongolia split into waring factions again, though most of Mongolia was unified by Altan Khan, who continued the Mongolian tradition of attacking China, though he gave up in 1571, signing a peace treaty with the Ming Dynasty that ended 3 centuries of war. Instead he concentrated on his southwest and raided Tibet, eventually becoming a convert to Tibetan Buddhism and naming the first Dalai Lama.

By the end of the 17th century the power of the khan had been greatly weakened. The Mongols were decentralized and threatened by a rising Manchuria. The last of the major khans, Ligden Khan established the pre-eminence of his faction over the Khalkha Mongols, and this prompted fear among his rivals who called upon the Manchu empire to help. The Manchus made some conquests in Eastern Mongolia, but Ligden was able to stop conquest further west, but after his death, southern Mongolian resistance collapsed.

By this time the Torgut Mongols, a subset of the Oriad migrated westwards becoming the Kalmyk, entering Russian territory they were conquered by the mid-17th century.

Over the 17th century, Mogolia became increasingly Buddhist, and one faction established a protectorate over Tibet. But as the Manchus became the Qing dynasty and established a firm control over China, they expanded into Northern Mongolia.

Qing rule over the areas of Northern Mongolia that became Outer Mongolia ended in 1911, with the fall of the Qing dynasty. Outer Mongolia briefly established a theocracy before being conquered by a Chinese warlord and then a Russian White Guard general. Soviet troops defeated the Russian White Guard in Mongolia and established a new Mongolian state. However this soon became a Soviet sattilite.

With the fall of the Soviet Union, Mongolia lost a major souce of aid, but began political reforms.


In Kublai, brother of Mangku, who succeeded him in 1260, was the fifth great Khan and the first real Emperor China of the Yuan Dynasty (1280). His ancestors have the following dynastic titles or miao hao: T'ai Tsu (Jenghiz), T'ai Tsung (Okkodai), Ting Tsung (Kuyuk), Hien Tsung (Mangku). Kublai himself has the miao hao of She Tsu and the two reign-titles (nien hao) of Chung T'ung (1260) and Che Yuan (1264). The list of his successors according to their miao hao, with nien hao in parentheses, is as follows: Ch'eng Tsung, 1295 (Yuan Cheng, 1295; Ta Teh, 1297); Wu Tsung, 1308 (Che Ta, 1308); Jen Tsung, 1312 (Hwang K'ing, 1312; Yen Yew, 1314); Ying Tsung, 1321 (Che Che, 1321); Tai Ting Ti, 1324; (Tai Ting, 1324; Che Ho, 1328); Ming Tsung, 1329 (T'ien Li, 1329); Wen Ti, 1330 (T'ien Li, 1330, Che Shup, 1330); Shun Ti, 1333 (Yuan Tung, 1333; Che Yuan, 1335; Che Cheng, 1341). The misconduct of the emperors led a Chinese priest, Chu Yuan-chang, to raise the standard of rebellion and expel the Mongols, in 1368. The priest ascended to the throne under the title of Hung Wu, and established his dynasty, the Ming, at Nan-king. Of the Court of Kublai Khan the Venetian traveller Marco Polo has left us a glorious account. China was then divided into twelve sheng, or provinces: Cheng Tung, Liao Yang, Chung Shu, Shen-si, Ling Pe (Karakorum), Kan Su, Sze-ch'wan, Ho-nan, Kiang-Pe, Kiang-che, Hiang-se, Hu-Kwang, and Yun-Nan.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. The Sino-Russian treaties[1][2] of 1727 and 1728 delimited the border between Mongolia and Russia that exists in large part today (except the Tannu Uriankhai section).

Mongolia held its first direct presidential elections on June 6, 1993.